4 Key Models in Urban Geography That Explain Land Use

4 Key Models in Urban Geography That Explain Land Use Walk through most contemporary cities, and the mazes of concrete and steel can be some of the most intimidating and confusing places to visit. Buildings rise up dozens of stories from the street and spread for miles out of view. Despite how hectic cities and their surrounding areas can be, attempts at creating models of the way cities function have been made and analyzed to make our understanding of the urban environment richer. Concentric Zone Model One of the first models created for use by academics was the concentric zone model, developed in the 1920s by urban sociologist Ernest Burgess. What Burgess wanted to model was Chicagos spatial structure with regards to the usage of zones around the city. These zones radiated from Chicagos center, The Loop, and moved concentrically outward. In the example of Chicago, Burgess designated five different zones that had separate functions spatially. The first zone was The Loop, the second zone was the belt of factories that were directly outside of The Loop, the third zone included homes of laborers who worked in the factories, the fourth zone contained middle-class residences, and the fifth and final zone hugged the first four zones and contained the homes of the suburban upper class. Keep in mind that Burgess developed the zone during an industrial movement in America and these zones worked mainly for American cities at the time. Attempts at applying the model to European cities have failed, as many cities in Europe have their upper classes located centrally, whereas American cities have their upper classes mostly at the periphery. The five names for each zone in the concentric zone model are as follows: Central business district (CBD)Zone of transitionZone of independent workersZone of better residencesCommuters zone Hoyt Model Since the concentric zone model isnt applicable to many cities, some other academics attempted to further model the urban environment. One of these academics was Homer Hoyt, a land economist who was mostly interested in taking a look at rents within a city as a means of modeling the citys layout. The Hoyt model (also known as the sector model), which was developed in 1939, took into account the effect of transportation and communication on a citys growth. His thoughts were that rents could remain relatively consistent in certain slices of the model, from the downtown center all the way to the suburban fringe, giving the model a pie-like look. This model has been found to work especially well in British cities. Multiple-Nuclei Model A third well-known model is the multiple-nuclei model. This model was developed in 1945 by geographers Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman to try and further describe a citys layout. Harris and Ullman made the argument that the citys downtown core (CBD) was losing its importance in relation to the rest of the city and should be seen less as the focal point of a city and instead as a nucleus within the metropolitan area. The automobile began to become increasingly important during this time, which made for greater movement of residents to the suburbs. Since this was taken into consideration, the multiple-nuclei model is a good fit for sprawling and expansive cities. The model itself contained nine differing sections that all had separate functions: Central business districtLight manufacturingLow-class residentialMiddle-class residentialUpper-class residentialHeavy manufacturingOutlying business districtResidential suburbIndustrial suburb These nuclei develop into independent areas because of their activities. For example, some economic activities that support one another (for instance, universities and bookstores) will create a nucleus. Other nuclei form because theyd be better off far from one another (e.g., airports and central business districts). Finally, other nuclei can develop from their economic specialization (think of shipping ports and railway centers). Urban-Realms Model As a means of improving upon the multiple nuclei model, geographer James E. Vance  Jr. proposed the urban-realms model in 1964. Using this model, Vance was able to look at San Franciscos urban ecology and summarize economic processes into a sturdy model. The model suggests that cities are made up of small realms, which are self-sufficient urban areas with independent focal points. The nature of these realms is examined through the lens of five criteria: The topological terrain of the area, including water barriers and mountainsThe size of the metropolis as a wholeThe amount and strength of the economic activity taking place within each of the realmsThe accessibility internally of each realm in regards to its major economic functionThe inter-accessibility across the individual suburban realms This model does a good job at explaining suburban growth and how certain functions that are normally found in the CBD can be moved to the suburbs (such as shopping malls, hospitals, schools, etc.). These functions diminish the importance of the CBD and instead create distant realms that accomplish approximately the same thing.

George Clinton - Fourth U. S. Vice President

George Clinton - Fourth U. S. Vice President George Clinton (July 26, 1739 - April 20, 1812) served from 1805 to 1812 as the fourth vice president in the administrations of both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. As Vice President, he set up the precedent of not bringing focus to himself and instead simply presiding over the Senate.   Early Years George Clinton was born on July 26, 1739, in Little Britain, New York, a little more than seventy miles north of New York City. The son of farmer and local politician Charles Clinton and Elizabeth Denniston, not much is known of his early educational years although he was privately tutored until he joined his father to fight in the French and Indian War.   Clinton rose through the ranks to become a lieutenant during the French and Indian War. After the War, he returned to New York to study law with a well-known attorney named William Smith. By 1764 he was a practicing attorney and the following year he was named the district attorney.   In 1770, Clinton married Cornelia Tappan. She was a relative of the wealthy Livingston clan who were wealthy landowners in the Hudson Valley that were distinctly anti-British as the colonies moved closer to open rebellion. In 1770, Clinton cemented his leadership in this clan with his defense of a member of the Sons of Liberty who had been arrested by the royalists in charge of the New York assembly for seditious libel.   Revolutionary War Leader Clinton was nominated to represent New York at the Second Continental Congress which was held in 1775. However, in his own words, he was not a fan of legislative service. He was not known as an individual who spoke up. He soon decided to leave the Congress and join the war effort as a Brigadier General in the New York Militia. He helped stop the British from gaining control of the Hudson River and was recognized as a hero. He was then named a Brigadier General in the Continental Army.   Governor of New York In 1777, Clinton ran against his old wealthy ally Edward Livingston to be Governor of New York. His win showed that the power of the old wealthy families was dissolving with the ongoing revolutionary war. Even though he left his military post to become the states governor, this did not stop him from returning to military service when the British tried to help reinforce the entrenched General John Burgoyne. His leadership meant that the British were unable to send help and Burgoyne eventually had to surrender at Saratoga.   Clinton served as Governor from 1777-1795 and again from 1801-1805. While he was extremely important in helping with the war effort by coordinating New York forces and sending money to support the war effort, he still always kept a New York first attitude. In fact, when it was announced that a tariff was to be considered that would greatly impact New Yorks finances, Clinton realized that a strong national government was not in his states best interests. Because of this new understanding, Clinton was strongly opposed to the new Constitution that would replace the Articles of Confederation.   However, Clinton soon saw the writing on the wall that the new Constitution would be approved. His hopes shifted from opposing ratification to becoming the new Vice President under George Washington in the hopes of adding amendments that would limit the reach of the national government. He was opposed by the Federalists who saw through this plan including Alexander Hamilton and James Madison who worked to have John Adams elected as Vice President instead.   Vice Presidential Candidate From Day One Clinton did run in that first election, but was defeated for the vice presidency by John Adams. It is important to remember that at this time the vice presidency was determined by a separate vote from the President so running mates did not matter.   In 1792, Clinton ran again, this time with the support of his former foes including Madison and Thomas Jefferson. They were unhappy with Adams nationalist ways. However, Adams once again carried the vote. Nonetheless, Clinton received enough votes to be considered a future viable candidate.   In 1800, Thomas Jefferson approached Clinton to be his vice-presidential candidate which he agreed to. However, Jefferson eventually went with Aaron Burr. Clinton never fully trusted Burr and this distrust was proven when Burr would not agree to allow Jefferson to be named President when their electoral votes were tied in the election. Jefferson was named president in the House of Representatives. To prevent Burr from re-entering New York politics, Clinton was once again elected Governor of New York in 1801.   Ineffectual Vice President In 1804, Jefferson replaced Burr with Clinton. After his election, Clinton soon found himself left out of any important decisions. He stayed away from the social atmosphere of Washington. In the end, his primary job was to preside over the Senate, which he was not very effective at either.   In 1808, it became obvious that the Democratic-Republicans would choose James Madison as their candidate for the presidency. However, Clinton felt it was his right be chosen as the next presidential candidate for the party. However, the party felt different and instead named him to be Vice President under Madison instead. Despite this, he and his supporters continued to behave as if they were running for the presidency and made claims against Madisons fitness for office. In the end, the party stuck with Madison who won the presidency. He opposed Madison from that point on, including breaking the tie against the recharter of the National Bank in defiance of the president.   Death While in Office Clinton died while in office as Madisons Vice President on April 20, 1812. He was the first individual to lie in state in the US Capitol. He was then buried at the Congressional Cemetery. Members of Congress also wore black armbands for thirty days after this death.   Legacy Clinton was a revolutionary war hero who was immensely popular and important in early New York politics. He served as the Vice President for two presidents. However, the fact that he was not consulted and did not truly affect any national politics while serving in this position helped set a precedent for an ineffectual Vice President.   Learn More George Clinton, 4th Vice President (1805-1812), US Senate BiographyKaminski, John P.  Ã‚  George Clinton: Yeoman Politician of the New Republic.  New York State Commission on the Bicentennial of the United States Constitution, University of WisconsinMadison Center for the Study of the American Constitution (Rowman Littlefield, 1993).